Electrolytes for Training: Sodium, Potassium, and Why Your "Hydration" Strategy Might Be Wrong

Walk into any gym in 2026 and count the shaker bottles with a colored packet dissolved in them. Electrolyte supplements have become the default accessory of the health-conscious, marketed with the confident implication that ordinary water is somehow deficient and that you are walking around depleted. The industry has been enormously successful at convincing people that hydration is a complicated technical problem requiring a purchased solution.

For a small number of people, in specific circumstances, that is true. For most lifters, most of the time, it is not. This guide covers what you genuinely lose when you sweat, how to measure your own losses instead of guessing, why the sodium story is real and the potassium story mostly is not, why the cramp connection is far weaker than everyone assumes, and the specific situations where a packet earns its price. It also covers the risk almost nobody talks about, which is drinking too much rather than too little.

What Electrolytes Actually Do

An electrolyte is a mineral that carries an electrical charge when dissolved in water. In the body, the main players are sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium. They matter because virtually every process your body runs on depends on charge gradients across cell membranes.

Consider what happens when you contract a muscle. A nerve impulse travels down a motor neuron as a wave of sodium rushing into the cell and potassium rushing out. That signal triggers calcium release inside the fiber, allowing the contractile proteins to bind and generate force. Then the whole thing resets, with pumps burning ATP to shove sodium back out and potassium back in. Every rep is thousands of these cycles.

Fluid balance runs on the same chemistry. Sodium is the primary determinant of extracellular fluid volume, and where sodium goes, water follows. This is why sodium status governs blood volume, blood pressure, and how much of the water you drink you actually retain rather than urinate away.

All of which sounds like an argument for aggressive supplementation. It is not, and here is why: your body defends these concentrations obsessively. Your kidneys can vary sodium excretion across an enormous range, conserving it when intake is low and dumping it when intake is high. Hormonal systems including aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone exist specifically to keep blood electrolyte concentrations within a tight band regardless of what you eat and drink. The system is robust, and it takes unusual circumstances to overwhelm it. The question is never whether you need sodium. It is whether your current intake plus your current losses leaves you short, and for most people on most days the answer is no.

What You Actually Lose in Sweat

Sweat is not blood, and it is not a balanced mineral solution. It is mostly water with a lopsided mineral profile, and understanding that profile immediately clarifies which supplements are worth buying. Sodium and chloride dominate. Everything else is present in comparatively trivial amounts.

Look at the sodium row and notice the range. Baker's 2017 review in Sports Medicine, which examined sweating rate and sweat sodium concentration across the athlete literature, found individual values spanning roughly 10 to 90 mmol/L, with most people clustering between about 20 and 80. That is a fourfold or greater spread between a light salt loser and a heavy one at the same sweat volume.

This is the single most important fact in the topic, and the one supplement marketing works hardest to obscure. Two lifters can do the identical session in the identical room and lose wildly different amounts of sodium. The person who genuinely needs a gram after training and the person who needs almost none are buying the same packet.

The drivers of that variation include genetics, heat acclimation status, sweat rate itself, fitness level, diet, and body size. Heat acclimation is a notable one: as you adapt to training in the heat over one to two weeks, your body gets better at reclaiming sodium before the sweat reaches your skin. Your own number is not fixed across the year.

Now compare those losses against normal intake. A liter of sweat at mid-range costs roughly a gram of sodium, while the average American diet supplies well over three grams daily. For a lifter losing half a liter in an air-conditioned gym, the arithmetic is not close. Dinner covers it.

Measuring Your Own Sweat Rate

Given how much individual variation exists, guessing is a poor strategy. The measurement is free and takes one session. Body mass lost during exercise is almost entirely water, and one kilogram lost corresponds to approximately one liter of sweat. The protocol:

1. Empty your bladder, then weigh yourself nude and record it.
2. Train for a known duration. Note anything you drink, in milliliters or ounces.
3. Do not eat during the session, and try not to urinate. If you do, that changes the math.
4. Towel yourself thoroughly dry, remove sweaty clothing, and weigh yourself nude again.
5. Sweat loss equals the weight lost plus the weight of the fluid you drank. One liter of water weighs one kilogram, so 500 ml consumed adds 0.5 kg.
6. Divide by hours trained.

A worked example: you start at 82.0 kg, train 90 minutes, drink 750 ml, finish at 80.9 kg. That is 1.1 kg lost plus 0.75 kg of fluid consumed, so 1.85 liters of sweat over 1.5 hours, or roughly 1.23 liters per hour. At a mid-range sodium concentration, that session cost around 1.8 grams of sodium.

Sweat rates vary enormously in the real world, from a few hundred milliliters per hour in cool conditions at moderate intensity to well over two liters per hour during hard work in heat. The 2007 ACSM position stand on exercise and fluid replacement notes that sweat rate is highly variable between individuals and can exceed two liters per hour for prolonged periods.

Run the test on a few different days: a cool day and a hot one, a heavy session and a light one. What you are building is a rough map of the conditions under which your losses get large enough to bother replacing.

Sodium: The Only One That Usually Matters

Sodium deserves its position at the center of this conversation because it is the only electrolyte lost in sweat at a rate that can meaningfully outpace ordinary intake, and because it does two jobs that nothing else does.

The first job is blood volume. Sodium determines how much fluid your extracellular compartment holds. When you sweat heavily and replace only with plain water, you have replaced volume but not the sodium that keeps the volume where you want it. Blood sodium concentration falls slightly, which suppresses antidiuretic hormone, which tells your kidneys to excrete water. You end up urinating out a chunk of what you just drank.

The second job is retention during recovery. Shirreffs and Maughan's work on post-exercise rehydration demonstrated that urine output after drinking is inversely related to the sodium content of the drink. More sodium in the rehydration beverage means less of it leaves as urine and more stays in you. This is the actual mechanism behind the advice to salt your recovery fluid, and it is why a sports drink outperforms water when the goal is fast, complete rehydration after significant losses. For anyone needing rapid recovery from substantial dehydration, standard guidance is roughly 1.5 liters of fluid per kilogram of body mass lost, with sodium included, because you have to over-drink the deficit to account for obligatory urine losses. If you have many hours to recover, normal salted meals handle it.

How much sodium do you actually need?

The public health framing and the athletic framing point in opposite directions, which is where much of the confusion comes from. From a population standpoint, the 2019 National Academies report established a Chronic Disease Risk Reduction intake for sodium of 2,300 mg per day, meaning that reducing intake toward that level is expected to lower chronic disease risk, primarily through blood pressure. Most people in developed countries eat well above it.

From an athletic standpoint, a heavy sweater training two hours in the heat can lose two or three grams of sodium in a single session, more than that entire daily target. Both facts are true at once. Population guidance is built around sedentary people eating processed food, and it is not a ceiling a heavy-sweating athlete should try to stay under on a training day.

The practical resolution is to think in replacement terms rather than a fixed daily number. Estimate your losses from your sweat rate, replace a meaningful fraction, and let normal salted food do the rest. If you have high blood pressure or a medical reason to restrict sodium, your doctor's guidance outranks anything here.

Potassium: Important, Just Not From Sweat

Potassium is genuinely important and most people genuinely do not get enough of it. Those two facts get combined with the word "electrolyte" to sell potassium supplements to athletes, and the logic does not survive contact with the sweat data.

Potassium is the dominant intracellular cation, central to nerve conduction, muscle contraction, and blood pressure regulation. The 2019 National Academies report set the Adequate Intake at 3,400 mg per day for most men and 2,600 mg for most women, and survey data consistently show typical intakes falling well below those levels.

Here is why that does not translate into a training supplement. Sweat potassium concentration sits at roughly 4 to 8 mmol/L, which works out to something like 160 to 310 mg per liter of sweat. Even a heavy two-liter session costs you a few hundred milligrams against a target of several thousand.

Your potassium problem, if you have one, is a vegetable problem. It is solved in the produce aisle rather than the supplement aisle, at every meal rather than around workouts. That is also why packets contain such small potassium doses: US regulations effectively cap over-the-counter potassium per serving, because large boluses carry real cardiac risk.

One potato outperforms four electrolyte packets on potassium. That comparison should reframe how you think about the entire category.

Magnesium, Calcium, and Chloride

The remaining electrolytes deserve brief and honest treatment, because they are used as label decoration far more than they contribute anything.

Magnesium matters a great deal for sleep, neuromuscular function, and hundreds of enzymatic reactions, and shortfall intakes are common. None of that is a sweat story. Losses of five to thirty-something milligrams per liter are trivial against a daily requirement in the 300 to 420 mg range. If magnesium is worth supplementing for you, and for many lifters it is, it is worth supplementing as a daily habit at a real dose rather than as a token amount in a training drink. We covered the forms, doses, and sleep evidence in the complete magnesium guide.

Calcium losses in sweat are similarly small, and your body has a large skeletal reservoir and tight hormonal regulation of blood calcium. Dairy, fortified foods, canned fish with bones, and leafy greens handle intake. Chloride requires almost no thought because it arrives automatically with sodium. Table salt is sodium chloride, roughly 40% sodium and 60% chloride by weight.

The broader point is that a product listing five electrolytes is not five times better than one listing sodium. Judge these products on sodium per serving and price per serving, because that is where the actual difference lives. The same logic applies to the trace minerals scattered through many multivitamin labels, which we broke down in the multivitamin guide.

Drinking Too Much: The Real Danger

Every message in mainstream fitness culture pushes in one direction: drink more. Carry the gallon jug. Hydrate constantly. Stay ahead of thirst. That messaging is not only oversold, it inverts the actual risk profile, because in exercise the serious, occasionally fatal complication comes from drinking too much rather than too little.

Exercise-associated hyponatremia occurs when blood sodium concentration falls below 135 mmol/L, most commonly because fluid intake has exceeded fluid losses and diluted the sodium in the blood. Mild cases produce nausea, headache, bloating, and confusion. Severe cases cause cerebral and pulmonary edema, seizures, and death.

The landmark data come from Almond and colleagues, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2005. They enrolled 766 runners in the 2002 Boston Marathon and obtained usable finish-line blood samples from 488. Thirteen percent had hyponatremia, and 0.6 percent had critical hyponatremia at or below 120 mmol/L. On multivariate analysis, the strongest predictors were weight gain during the race (odds ratio 4.2), a finishing time over four hours (odds ratio 7.4 versus a sub-3:30 finish), and extremes of body mass index.

Sit with the first predictor for a moment. Gaining weight during a marathon means consuming more fluid than you sweated out over 26.2 miles. The people who got into trouble were the people following the drink-constantly advice most diligently.

The Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, convened in Carlsbad in 2015 and published by Hew-Butler and colleagues, was called partly in response to the largely preventable deaths of two high school football players from dilutional hyponatremia. Its central prevention recommendation is simple: use thirst to guide drinking. Thirst is a well-calibrated signal that limits overdrinking while providing enough fluid to prevent meaningful dehydration.

To be clear about proportion, this is a low-probability event concentrated in endurance events, military training, and hot-weather team sports rather than the weight room. A lifter doing an hour of squats will not develop hyponatremia by accident. The point is that the risk asymmetry runs opposite to what the marketing implies.

The Cramp Myth

Ask anyone why muscles cramp during exercise and you will hear about electrolytes and dehydration. It is one of the most widely held beliefs in fitness, the foundation of an enormous product category, and considerably weaker on evidence than its popularity suggests.

The competing explanation, proposed by Schwellnus and colleagues in 1997 and now the dominant model in sports medicine, is altered neuromuscular control driven by muscle fatigue. As a muscle fatigues, excitatory input from muscle spindles increases while inhibitory input from Golgi tendon organs decreases. The motor neuron begins firing abnormally, presenting first as twitching and then, if the contraction continues, as a sustained involuntary cramp.

Several observations favor the fatigue model over the depletion model:

• Cramps are local, not systemic. They strike the specific muscle doing the work, typically the calf or hamstring in a runner. A whole-body sodium deficit should not produce a symptom confined to one muscle group while every other muscle behaves normally.
• Blood chemistry does not distinguish crampers from non-crampers. Studies in distance runners have generally found no consistent association between serum electrolyte concentrations or hydration status and who cramps.
• Salt does not reliably fix it. If depletion were the cause, replacing the deficit should resolve the cramp consistently. In practice it often does not.
• Cramps track effort. They cluster in athletes going faster than usual, competing beyond their training, or late in an event when fatigue has accumulated.

This remains an active area of research and the picture is probably not one-size-fits-all. There is a plausible subgroup of very heavy, very salty sweaters in prolonged hot-weather work for whom sodium status contributes something. But for the typical lifter cramping in a hamstring during Romanian deadlifts, or in a calf at 2 a.m. after a hard leg day, the fatigue explanation fits far better.

Practically: if you cramp regularly, the higher-yield interventions are managing training load so intensity does not outrun your conditioning, building work capacity in the muscle that cramps, improving sleep, and stretching or contracting the antagonist muscle during an acute cramp. Salt is cheap enough that trying costs nothing, but it should not be the only lever you pull. Recurring cramps with weakness, numbness, or no clear training trigger deserve a doctor rather than a supplement. Our guide on managing training injuries covers when to escalate.

Does Any of This Affect Lifting?

Most hydration research uses endurance protocols, which raises a fair question for people whose sport is a barbell. The resistance training evidence is thinner but not absent. The most useful synthesis is Savoie and colleagues' 2015 meta-analysis in Sports Medicine, which pooled studies on hypohydration and muscular performance. Muscle strength fell by about 5.5 percent under hypohydration, muscle endurance by roughly 8 percent, and anaerobic power by about 5.8 percent. Anaerobic capacity and vertical jump were not significantly affected, and trained individuals showed a smaller decrement than untrained ones.

So dehydration does cost you something in the gym, but the magnitude is modest and it takes real fluid loss to produce it. Most of these protocols dehydrated subjects by two to four percent of body mass, which for an 80 kg lifter means shedding 1.6 to 3.2 kg of water. That is a wrestling weight cut or a long session in serious heat, not a normal hour of lifting indoors.

The endurance side shows a similar threshold effect. Well-controlled blinded studies, in which subjects could not tell which hydration condition they were in, indicate that hypohydration beyond two percent of body mass impairs endurance cycling performance in the heat. Earlier unblinded work likely overstated the effect, because knowing you are dehydrated changes how hard the effort feels. What survives the methodological critique is that losses beyond about two percent start to matter and losses below that mostly do not.

For a lifter, this translates to a relaxed practical standard. Show up reasonably hydrated, drink to thirst during the session, and eat normally afterward. You do not need to sip continuously between sets or arrive having pre-loaded a liter.

When You Actually Need Electrolytes

Here is the decision framework, organized by scenario rather than by product.

That last row is worth emphasizing, because it is where a large fraction of electrolyte sales come from. Fatigue in a sedentary person eating a normal diet is rarely an electrolyte deficiency. It is much more often insufficient sleep, insufficient food, insufficient movement, or the tail end of a caffeine cycle. A packet may make you feel briefly better because you drank 16 ounces of flavored water, which is a hydration and placebo effect rather than a correction of any deficiency.

DIY vs Commercial Products

If you land in one of the scenarios that genuinely calls for sodium, you face a choice between a packet and your kitchen. The chemistry is identical. What differs is dose, taste, convenience, and price.

Commercial products vary widely in sodium content, which is the number that actually matters. Traditional sports drinks were formulated primarily as carbohydrate delivery vehicles for endurance athletes, and their sodium content is fairly low. The newer high-sodium powders were built for a low-carb and heavy-sweating audience and can deliver a full gram or more per serving. Oral rehydration solutions designed for illness sit in between, with a balanced sodium-to-glucose ratio that maximizes intestinal absorption.

Read the nutrition panel and ignore everything else. A product boasting seventy-two trace minerals from ancient sea salt is selling you a story about sodium chloride.

Prices and formulations change constantly, so treat these as ballpark figures and check the label of whatever is in front of you.

A workable DIY recipe

For roughly one liter of drinkable homemade electrolyte solution:

• 1 liter of water
• 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon of table salt, depending on your losses (about 575 to 1,150 mg sodium)
• Juice of half a lemon or lime, for palatability and a small amount of potassium
• Optional: 1 to 2 tablespoons of sugar, honey, or a splash of fruit juice
• Optional: a pinch of lite salt, which is potassium chloride, if you want measurable potassium

The sugar is not filler. Glucose and sodium are co-transported across the intestinal wall, the principle underpinning oral rehydration therapy, so a modest amount of carbohydrate improves sodium and water absorption. If you are cutting, skip it and accept slightly slower absorption. If you track closely, count the carbs like any other tracked calories.

Cutting, Low-Carb, and Other Special Cases

A handful of situations shift electrolytes from optional to genuinely worth managing, and they have little to do with how much you sweat.

Low-carbohydrate and ketogenic diets

This is the strongest non-athletic case for supplementing sodium. Insulin has a sodium-retaining effect at the kidney. When carbohydrate intake drops sharply and insulin falls with it, the kidneys excrete more sodium and the water that travels with it. This is why people drop several pounds in the first week of a low-carb diet, and also why they often feel terrible: headaches, fatigue, lightheadedness on standing, poor training performance. Much of what gets labeled "keto flu" is sodium depletion, and one to two grams of added sodium daily frequently resolves it within a day or two.

Aggressive cuts on whole foods

Most dietary sodium comes from processed and restaurant food rather than the salt shaker. When someone starts a serious cut and simultaneously moves to chicken, rice, and vegetables cooked at home, sodium intake can fall dramatically without them intending it. The symptoms mimic what people expect from a deficit, so nobody suspects the cause. If your energy tanks after cleaning up your diet, salt your food deliberately before concluding you are underfed. This is one of the easier wins available while meal prepping.

GLP-1 medications

People on GLP-1 receptor agonists eat far less food overall, and reduced volume means reduced sodium, potassium, and magnesium alongside reduced calories. Nausea and occasional vomiting compound it. Attention to electrolytes, protein, and micronutrients generally is worthwhile on these medications. We covered the broader picture in the GLP-1 guide.

Sauna, illness, and alcohol

Passive heat exposure produces sweat losses without the training stimulus, and twenty to thirty minutes in a sauna can cost half a liter or more. Vomiting and diarrhea deplete fluid and electrolytes far faster and more dangerously than exercise does; oral rehydration solutions exist for exactly this and outperform both plain water and sports drinks, and persistent vomiting or symptoms in a child or older adult warrant a doctor rather than a sports drink. Alcohol suppresses antidiuretic hormone, which increases urine output and drives fluid losses, which is part of why hangovers feel the way they do. The full breakdown of alcohol and training covers the rest.

Common Mistakes

Treating electrolytes as a daily requirement. Unless you fall into one of the specific scenarios above, a daily packet is buying you flavored water. Food supplies these minerals, and your kidneys handle the balancing.

Drinking on a schedule instead of to thirst. Forcing fluid at fixed intervals regardless of how you feel is precisely the behavior associated with hyponatremia in the marathon data.

Using electrolytes to fix a fatigue that is actually something else. Chronic tiredness usually traces to sleep debt, an aggressive deficit, inadequate protein, or accumulated training fatigue. If a packet fixed it, the fix would be lasting rather than a twenty-minute lift.

Buying based on the number of ingredients. Sodium per serving is the specification that matters. Everything else on the label is close to decoration.

Never measuring anything. One weigh-in before and after a session tells you more about your personal needs than a year of reading marketing copy.

Ignoring sodium entirely because it sounds unhealthy. The inverse error is also real. A heavy-sweating athlete on a clean whole-food diet can genuinely run low, and stubbornly avoiding salt because of population-level public health messaging can leave you flat, dizzy, and underperforming.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do I need electrolytes for a normal one-hour gym session?

Almost certainly not. A typical air-conditioned session of 45 to 90 minutes produces modest sweat losses that a normal diet and plain water replace easily. Packets earn their place when sessions run long, when you sweat heavily, when the environment is hot, or when your diet is unusually low in sodium.

How do I calculate my sweat rate?

Weigh yourself nude before training, train for a known period without eating, towel off and weigh yourself nude again, then add back the weight of any fluid you drank. Each kilogram lost is roughly one liter of sweat. Divide by hours trained. Repeat across different conditions, because sweat rate swings with heat, humidity, intensity, and acclimation.

Will electrolytes stop my muscle cramps?

Probably not, though they might help a subset of people. The dominant modern explanation is altered neuromuscular control driven by muscle fatigue, proposed by Schwellnus and colleagues, rather than systemic electrolyte depletion. Studies in distance runners have found no consistent association between cramping and serum electrolyte or hydration status, and cramps strike the specific working muscle rather than the whole body.

Can you drink too much water during exercise?

Yes, and it is more dangerous than mild dehydration. Drinking beyond your losses dilutes blood sodium and can cause exercise-associated hyponatremia. Almond and colleagues found 13 percent of their Boston Marathon finisher sample hyponatremic, with weight gain during the race among the strongest predictors. The 2015 consensus statement recommends drinking to thirst as the simplest protection.

Is a DIY electrolyte mix as good as a commercial product?

Chemically, yes. Sodium chloride is sodium chloride whether it comes from a packet or your salt shaker. Commercial products buy convenience, taste, and precise dosing. If a packet is the difference between actually replacing sodium and not bothering, it is worth the money.

Should I take electrolytes on a low-carb diet or while cutting?

This is one of the better cases for supplementing. Low-carbohydrate diets lower insulin, which increases sodium excretion, and aggressive cutting strips out the processed foods that supply most dietary sodium. The resulting fatigue, headaches, and lightheadedness get blamed on carb withdrawal when the cause is often simple sodium depletion. One to two grams of added sodium daily frequently resolves it.

The Bottom Line

Electrolytes are essential to life and mostly unremarkable as a supplement. Your body regulates them with impressive precision, your diet supplies them in quantity, and your kidneys adjust excretion across an enormous range to keep blood concentrations stable. Buying a daily packet to correct a deficiency you do not have is an efficient way to spend money on nothing.

The parts that are real are worth taking seriously. Sodium is the one electrolyte lost in sweat at a rate that can outpace normal intake, individual losses vary by roughly fourfold between people, and sodium is what makes the fluid you drink stay in you. Getting your own number with a bathroom scale beats any generic recommendation. The parts that are oversold are worth ignoring: potassium, magnesium, and calcium losses in sweat are trivial against dietary intake, a potato outperforms a packet on potassium several times over, and cramps are more likely a fatigue problem than a salt problem.

Practically: drink to thirst, weigh yourself around a session or two to learn your sweat rate, salt your food deliberately if you eat mostly whole foods or low carbohydrate, add one to two grams of sodium around genuinely long or hot sessions, and let normal meals handle everything else. That is the entire protocol, it costs almost nothing, and it is built on better evidence than the packet in your gym bag.

References

1. Sawka, M.N., Burke, L.M., Eichner, E.R., Maughan, R.J., Montain, S.J., & Stachenfeld, N.S. (2007). American College of Sports Medicine position stand: exercise and fluid replacement. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(2), 377-390.
2. Baker, L.B. (2017). Sweating rate and sweat sodium concentration in athletes: a review of methodology and intra/interindividual variability. Sports Medicine, 47(Suppl 1), 111-128.
3. Almond, C.S.D., Shin, A.Y., Fortescue, E.B., et al. (2005). Hyponatremia among runners in the Boston Marathon. New England Journal of Medicine, 352(15), 1550-1556.
4. Hew-Butler, T., Rosner, M.H., Fowkes-Godek, S., et al. (2015). Statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, Carlsbad, California, 2015. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 25(4), 303-320.
5. Schwellnus, M.P., Derman, E.W., & Noakes, T.D. (1997). Aetiology of skeletal muscle "cramps" during exercise: a novel hypothesis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 15(3), 277-285.
6. Schwellnus, M.P. (2009). Cause of exercise associated muscle cramps (EAMC): altered neuromuscular control, dehydration or electrolyte depletion? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43(6), 401-408.
7. Savoie, F.A., Kenefick, R.W., Ely, B.R., Cheuvront, S.N., & Goulet, E.D.B. (2015). Effect of hypohydration on muscle endurance, strength, anaerobic power and capacity and vertical jumping ability: a meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 45(8), 1207-1227.
8. Shirreffs, S.M., & Maughan, R.J. (1998). Volume repletion after exercise-induced volume depletion in humans: replacement of water and sodium losses. American Journal of Physiology, 274(5), F868-F875.
9. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2019). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
10. Miller, K.C., McDermott, B.P., Yeargin, S.W., Fiol, A., & Schwellnus, M.P. (2022). An evidence-based review of the pathophysiology, treatment, and prevention of exercise-associated muscle cramps. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(1), 5-15.
11. Wall, B.A., Watson, G., Peiffer, J.J., Abbiss, C.R., Siegel, R., & Laursen, P.B. (2015). Current hydration guidelines are erroneous: dehydration does not impair exercise performance in the heat. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(16), 1077-1083.